WEBVTT 00:00:12.760 --> 00:00:15.240 When I look at you, I don't see prisoners. 00:00:18.520 --> 00:00:21.800 I don't see criminals or slaves. 00:00:22.040 --> 00:00:24.600 I don't even see gladiators. 00:00:26.640 --> 00:00:29.880 I see legionaries, 00:00:29.960 --> 00:00:34.440 Dedicated to protecting this great empire. 00:00:36.200 --> 00:00:38.200 Help me. 00:00:38.280 --> 00:00:41.400 Help me to protect the citizens of rome, 00:00:41.480 --> 00:00:44.200 And you will win your freedom! 00:00:45.800 --> 00:00:48.440 caesar! Caesar! Caesar! 00:00:56.120 --> 00:00:59.320 The colosseum is the roman empire 00:00:59.400 --> 00:01:01.400 Distilled to its most basic essence. 00:01:03.720 --> 00:01:06.520 It is a symbol of conquest. 00:01:06.640 --> 00:01:09.320 It's a symbol of dominance. 00:01:09.400 --> 00:01:11.160 It's a symbol of imperial power 00:01:11.240 --> 00:01:13.080 Radiating throughout the roman world. 00:01:15.480 --> 00:01:17.240 Now! 00:01:19.080 --> 00:01:21.800 Any emperor had the colosseum at his disposal 00:01:22.040 --> 00:01:25.480 To use as a tool to reassert his power and authority. 00:01:27.480 --> 00:01:29.320 The message to the roman people 00:01:29.400 --> 00:01:31.960 Is that life is a combat. 00:01:33.720 --> 00:01:37.560 It was also a judicial warning. 00:01:37.640 --> 00:01:40.440 Do not test the power of rome. 00:01:40.560 --> 00:01:42.360 It was a death penalty offense. 00:01:47.160 --> 00:01:48.720 If you live by the sword... 00:01:50.440 --> 00:01:51.800 You die by the sword. 00:01:55.080 --> 00:01:57.960 It demonstrates the power of the colosseum. 00:01:58.040 --> 00:02:01.800 It made slaves into heroes, 00:02:04.040 --> 00:02:05.480 It's all there-- 00:02:05.600 --> 00:02:07.880 The blood, the glory, the magnificence, 00:02:08.000 --> 00:02:12.680 And the flaws that made rome the greatest empire 00:02:12.760 --> 00:02:14.200 That europe has ever seen. 00:02:32.160 --> 00:02:34.520 Narrator: 162 a.D. 00:02:34.760 --> 00:02:37.000 Rome's golden age. 00:02:37.120 --> 00:02:39.080 The empire of the mid-second century, 00:02:39.160 --> 00:02:41.240 It's at its pinnacle, in terms of 00:02:41.480 --> 00:02:44.120 Its territorial expanse and its wealth. 00:02:44.360 --> 00:02:47.000 It's an empire that is leading the world 00:02:47.240 --> 00:02:50.840 In science, in culture, in philosophy, and in medicine. 00:02:52.840 --> 00:02:55.800 Rome is really the cultural center of the universe 00:02:55.880 --> 00:02:57.000 In this moment. 00:02:57.120 --> 00:02:58.840 Authors, doctors, 00:02:59.080 --> 00:03:02.200 Architects, philosophers flock to the city 00:03:02.280 --> 00:03:05.560 Because they are enticed by rome itself. 00:03:05.640 --> 00:03:07.720 Narrator: Among those entranced by rome 00:03:07.800 --> 00:03:09.800 Is galen of pergamon, 00:03:09.880 --> 00:03:11.800 A brilliant medical scientist 00:03:11.880 --> 00:03:15.080 Whose works are still studied today. 00:03:15.160 --> 00:03:18.600 Galen is probably the single most influential figure 00:03:18.680 --> 00:03:20.520 In the history of medicine. 00:03:26.680 --> 00:03:28.840 He was an author, a philosopher, 00:03:28.920 --> 00:03:30.440 A scientist, a doctor, 00:03:30.520 --> 00:03:33.320 And an incredibly ambitious man. 00:03:33.440 --> 00:03:35.800 His writings survive, which is true 00:03:35.880 --> 00:03:39.080 For very, very few doctors from this period. 00:03:39.200 --> 00:03:42.120 And we know that he's exceptionally skilled, 00:03:42.200 --> 00:03:44.840 And he has an ego to match. 00:03:48.840 --> 00:03:50.840 Narrator: Galen comes to the colosseum 00:03:51.080 --> 00:03:54.280 To catch the eye of emperor marcus aurelius, 00:03:54.360 --> 00:03:57.080 One of the empire's great minds. 00:03:57.320 --> 00:03:59.320 Marcus aurelius comes at the tail end 00:03:59.560 --> 00:04:02.040 Of the five good emperors. 00:04:02.120 --> 00:04:03.480 These were the emperors who ruled 00:04:03.520 --> 00:04:05.000 During what's known as the pax romana, 00:04:05.120 --> 00:04:07.080 During the very height of the roman empire 00:04:07.200 --> 00:04:08.760 In the second century a.D. 00:04:12.160 --> 00:04:15.080 Marcus aurelius was an intellectual 00:04:15.200 --> 00:04:20.040 And was very much engaged in philosophical reflection. 00:04:20.160 --> 00:04:21.800 And in fact, his nickname 00:04:21.880 --> 00:04:24.280 Is sometimes the philosopher king. 00:04:27.680 --> 00:04:30.360 He was an extraordinary character. 00:04:30.600 --> 00:04:32.600 He'd been chosen as a very young man 00:04:32.840 --> 00:04:35.080 And trained to be emperor. 00:04:35.200 --> 00:04:39.320 And for once, they got it absolutely right. 00:04:39.560 --> 00:04:42.040 Narrator: But marcus aurelius does not rule alone. 00:04:42.280 --> 00:04:44.200 For the first time in roman history, 00:04:44.320 --> 00:04:48.040 Two emperors govern side by side. 00:04:50.720 --> 00:04:53.000 Marcus aurelius's adopted brother, lucius verus, 00:04:53.080 --> 00:04:54.760 They were almost opposites. 00:04:54.840 --> 00:04:56.680 They reigned together perfectly 00:04:56.720 --> 00:04:58.280 Because they were two sides of a coin. 00:04:58.360 --> 00:05:00.360 There's no greater example of how absolute opposite 00:05:00.440 --> 00:05:03.240 These men were as to their attitude 00:05:03.320 --> 00:05:05.640 To the colosseum and to the games. 00:05:05.720 --> 00:05:07.640 Someone like marcus, who was so intellectual, 00:05:07.720 --> 00:05:09.480 So philosophical, for him, 00:05:09.560 --> 00:05:12.680 The endless and pointless bloodshed made no sense. 00:05:12.800 --> 00:05:15.480 Lucius, on the other hand, absolutely lives for it. 00:05:15.520 --> 00:05:17.040 Yes, it's a vulgar sport, 00:05:17.120 --> 00:05:18.960 It's a vulgar vice to have, 00:05:19.040 --> 00:05:20.200 But he adores it. 00:05:23.320 --> 00:05:26.120 Narrator: A surgeon like galen plays a crucial role 00:05:26.240 --> 00:05:28.520 In keeping gladiators alive. 00:05:28.600 --> 00:05:30.760 But he wants more. 00:05:30.880 --> 00:05:34.600 Galen was such an ambitious and driven individual 00:05:34.720 --> 00:05:37.160 That he wanted to become the world's greatest doctor. 00:05:37.280 --> 00:05:38.760 He already thought of himself as such. 00:05:38.880 --> 00:05:40.680 He just wanted people to acknowledge it. 00:05:40.800 --> 00:05:42.600 Narrator: These two men in rome 00:05:42.720 --> 00:05:44.680 At the height of the empire's powers 00:05:44.800 --> 00:05:48.760 Will also be present at the start of its decline. 00:05:48.840 --> 00:05:50.840 Galen's journey to this moment begins 00:05:51.080 --> 00:05:54.720 Almost two decades earlier and 800 miles away 00:05:54.800 --> 00:05:56.880 From the city of rome. 00:06:02.880 --> 00:06:04.200 Galen's hometown 00:06:04.320 --> 00:06:06.840 Is the ancient city of pergamon, 00:06:06.920 --> 00:06:09.800 A greek hub near the coast of the aegean sea, 00:06:09.880 --> 00:06:13.240 Now in western turkey. 00:06:14.880 --> 00:06:17.720 Pergamon is one of the crown jewels 00:06:17.960 --> 00:06:21.160 Of the eastern part of the roman empire. 00:06:21.240 --> 00:06:25.640 It's a sophisticated city with lots of fine buildings, 00:06:25.720 --> 00:06:28.440 Including a temple to asclepius, 00:06:28.680 --> 00:06:30.440 The god of healing. 00:06:30.560 --> 00:06:32.120 If you wanted to become a doctor, 00:06:32.200 --> 00:06:33.800 Pergamon was a pretty good place to start. 00:06:33.880 --> 00:06:35.720 Galen was extremely well-educated. 00:06:35.840 --> 00:06:37.400 He had tutors, 00:06:37.480 --> 00:06:39.640 First in philosophy and then in medicine. 00:06:39.880 --> 00:06:43.240 He came from a family that was wealthy and cultured. 00:06:43.360 --> 00:06:44.760 He was set up for success. 00:06:48.440 --> 00:06:50.440 Narrator: In 157 a.D., 00:06:50.520 --> 00:06:54.680 Galen lands his first official medical role. 00:06:57.080 --> 00:06:58.840 Galen gets an incredible opportunity, 00:06:58.920 --> 00:07:01.280 Which is to become the doctor at a ludus, 00:07:01.360 --> 00:07:02.800 At a gladiator school. 00:07:04.360 --> 00:07:07.080 Gladiators, contrary to popular opinion, 00:07:07.160 --> 00:07:08.840 Were not expendable commodities. 00:07:08.960 --> 00:07:10.600 They were extremely valuable. 00:07:12.360 --> 00:07:13.400 The amount of money 00:07:13.640 --> 00:07:15.480 That went into these athletes, 00:07:15.560 --> 00:07:17.320 Preserving them, making them famous, 00:07:17.360 --> 00:07:20.040 Training them, was a huge cost to the school, 00:07:20.120 --> 00:07:22.280 And they had to get a return on that cost. 00:07:22.360 --> 00:07:24.640 Any way they could to preserve that gladiator, 00:07:24.680 --> 00:07:26.280 They would have done, and that included 00:07:26.400 --> 00:07:28.200 Getting fantastic medical care. 00:07:30.520 --> 00:07:32.520 Narrator: Galen's appointment at the ludus 00:07:32.640 --> 00:07:35.800 Follows years of unusual study. 00:07:35.880 --> 00:07:38.280 There's a real turning point in galen's life. 00:07:38.360 --> 00:07:40.760 His father passed away at the age of 19. 00:07:41.000 --> 00:07:42.600 What he gained was a massive inheritance, 00:07:42.720 --> 00:07:44.400 And he uses that inheritance 00:07:44.480 --> 00:07:46.080 To go on sort of a learning pilgrimage. 00:07:48.240 --> 00:07:50.520 He spends the next 10 years traveling, 00:07:50.760 --> 00:07:52.600 And then eventually, he ends up in the city 00:07:52.680 --> 00:07:54.360 That really makes him, 00:07:54.600 --> 00:07:57.160 Which is the city of alexandria in egypt. 00:07:57.240 --> 00:07:59.560 Alexandria was the one place in the ancient world 00:07:59.680 --> 00:08:02.120 That had a tradition of human dissection. 00:08:02.240 --> 00:08:03.960 Now, there was a very narrow window 00:08:04.040 --> 00:08:06.680 Where that was practiced back in the ptolemaic era, 00:08:06.920 --> 00:08:08.760 In the third century b.C.E. 00:08:08.840 --> 00:08:11.560 However, the tradition and the knowledge continued. 00:08:14.200 --> 00:08:16.200 Galen's knowledge, the ability to learn 00:08:16.320 --> 00:08:18.760 From the works of physicians who had actually 00:08:18.880 --> 00:08:21.720 Participated in dissection, gave him an opportunity 00:08:21.760 --> 00:08:23.880 To understand the body unlike any other physician 00:08:23.960 --> 00:08:26.120 At the time. 00:08:26.600 --> 00:08:27.880 Narrator: Now galen applies 00:08:28.000 --> 00:08:29.720 His unique knowledge of anatomy 00:08:29.800 --> 00:08:33.880 To treat the gladiators in the school at pergamon. 00:08:33.960 --> 00:08:35.640 Gladiators would give a young physician 00:08:35.880 --> 00:08:37.240 A lot of opportunities to practice. 00:08:37.320 --> 00:08:39.320 You're talking about a lot of lacerations, 00:08:39.400 --> 00:08:42.160 A lot of broken bones, high-speed impacts. 00:08:44.800 --> 00:08:47.640 Every single injury was a window onto the human body. 00:08:47.720 --> 00:08:49.720 It was an opportunity to work on his craft. 00:09:01.800 --> 00:09:02.600 Get him ready. 00:09:06.280 --> 00:09:07.520 He has a fracture 00:09:07.600 --> 00:09:09.520 To the frontal plate of the skull. 00:09:09.640 --> 00:09:12.480 Internal swelling causes pressure on the bone, 00:09:12.560 --> 00:09:16.080 And that bone needs to be chiseled away 00:09:16.200 --> 00:09:17.840 To release that pressure. 00:09:17.920 --> 00:09:19.760 Still with us? 00:09:23.120 --> 00:09:24.600 All right. 00:09:28.080 --> 00:09:30.640 In terms of the tool kit at galen's disposal, 00:09:30.720 --> 00:09:32.840 There actually isn't that much difference 00:09:32.920 --> 00:09:34.120 Between what he had access to 00:09:34.160 --> 00:09:35.360 And something that a doctor would have been using 00:09:35.440 --> 00:09:38.000 150 or 200 years ago. 00:09:40.680 --> 00:09:42.560 He has some anesthetics available. 00:09:42.800 --> 00:09:47.040 He has opiates, mandrake root mixed with wine. 00:09:47.280 --> 00:09:48.240 He has scalpels. 00:09:48.360 --> 00:09:49.440 He has forceps. 00:09:49.520 --> 00:09:51.440 He's able to set broken bones. 00:09:54.160 --> 00:09:56.160 When you get someone like galen, who understands 00:09:56.240 --> 00:09:58.080 That you have to disinfect your tools, 00:09:58.320 --> 00:10:00.160 That you have to disinfect wounds, 00:10:00.400 --> 00:10:02.560 How to stitch, how to close, 00:10:02.640 --> 00:10:04.360 His understanding of the body-- 00:10:04.400 --> 00:10:06.400 There was nobody like him at that period. 00:10:08.320 --> 00:10:11.520 Galen revolutionizes ancient medicine. 00:10:11.600 --> 00:10:14.400 We're talking about a guy who, 2,000 years ago, 00:10:14.640 --> 00:10:19.440 Was able to identify seven cranial nerves, 00:10:19.520 --> 00:10:23.600 And he knew the difference between arteries and veins. 00:10:26.320 --> 00:10:27.600 Good as new. 00:10:30.480 --> 00:10:32.320 Now, we only have his own account, 00:10:32.400 --> 00:10:35.040 But he tells us that his predecessors 00:10:35.120 --> 00:10:38.320 Had 60 gladiators die in the course of five years, 00:10:38.400 --> 00:10:41.360 And he only saw the deaths of two of them. 00:10:41.480 --> 00:10:43.520 This was an astounding track record. 00:10:43.600 --> 00:10:46.480 You did well today, helius. 00:10:46.560 --> 00:10:48.240 Thank you. 00:10:48.360 --> 00:10:53.520 I wonder, think their skulls are the same in rome? 00:10:53.600 --> 00:10:55.280 I expect so. 00:10:55.360 --> 00:10:56.800 Why? 00:10:57.040 --> 00:10:58.400 There's only one way to find out. 00:10:58.640 --> 00:10:59.760 Narrator: For galen, 00:10:59.840 --> 00:11:01.360 The next steps are clear. 00:11:01.480 --> 00:11:04.680 His road leads to rome. 00:11:09.640 --> 00:11:12.720 Narrator: In 162 a.D., galen arrives in rome 00:11:12.800 --> 00:11:15.120 Seeking both knowledge and influence. 00:11:17.800 --> 00:11:22.080 Rome was, at the time, the largest city in the world. 00:11:22.320 --> 00:11:26.160 It had a population of about a million or more. 00:11:26.240 --> 00:11:28.640 If you wanted to be connected to power 00:11:28.720 --> 00:11:32.080 And prestige and wealth and fame, 00:11:32.160 --> 00:11:33.760 That was really the place to be. 00:11:36.560 --> 00:11:38.880 For galen, who had already spent four years 00:11:39.120 --> 00:11:41.760 Working as a doctor with gladiators, 00:11:41.840 --> 00:11:44.800 There was no greater stage in the whole roman empire 00:11:45.040 --> 00:11:47.120 Than the colosseum. 00:12:02.960 --> 00:12:06.480 Narrator: Galen had one goal, to become personal physician 00:12:06.560 --> 00:12:10.960 To the empire's most important man. 00:12:11.080 --> 00:12:15.040 By 162 a.D., marcus aurelius has been co-emperor of rome 00:12:15.120 --> 00:12:17.040 For less than a year. 00:12:19.400 --> 00:12:22.080 The empire that he and his brother lucius inherit 00:12:22.320 --> 00:12:26.000 Is vast and powerful, stretching from the deserts 00:12:26.120 --> 00:12:29.040 Of syria and the nile river to scotland 00:12:29.160 --> 00:12:32.640 And the forests of germania. 00:12:32.720 --> 00:12:36.320 Marcus aurelius governs it unlike any previous emperor, 00:12:36.400 --> 00:12:40.840 According to the rules of stoic philosophy. 00:12:40.920 --> 00:12:43.200 Marcus aurelius is probably best known 00:12:43.280 --> 00:12:45.280 As the author of "the meditations" 00:12:45.360 --> 00:12:48.800 And meditations specifically on stoicism. 00:12:48.880 --> 00:12:51.920 He was a believer in that ancient philosophy 00:12:52.040 --> 00:12:57.360 Of sacrifice and duty and obligation. 00:12:57.440 --> 00:13:00.080 A lot of the philosophy is based on the idea 00:13:00.160 --> 00:13:02.480 That one should live in accordance with nature. 00:13:02.600 --> 00:13:06.080 Nature was governed by reason and divine providence. 00:13:06.320 --> 00:13:08.800 And so that meant observing virtuous conduct. 00:13:09.040 --> 00:13:13.600 Virtue was very much the idea of what one should aim for. 00:13:17.200 --> 00:13:19.120 Narrator: Galen's records confirm that he shares 00:13:19.200 --> 00:13:21.120 The same views as marcus aurelius 00:13:21.360 --> 00:13:23.040 On the preservation of human life. 00:13:30.480 --> 00:13:31.760 Galen was a doctor. 00:13:31.840 --> 00:13:33.120 He was a healer. 00:13:33.200 --> 00:13:35.520 And marcus aurelius had no great love 00:13:35.600 --> 00:13:38.240 For the games and the blood sport of the colosseum. 00:13:41.440 --> 00:13:43.760 death! Death! Death! 00:13:43.880 --> 00:13:47.040 When a mortally wounded gladiator was at the end, 00:13:47.120 --> 00:13:50.160 A figure dressed as dis pater, who's a god of the underworld, 00:13:50.280 --> 00:13:51.600 Comes out. 00:13:54.280 --> 00:13:56.160 I can save him! 00:13:56.400 --> 00:13:57.560 I can save him! 00:13:58.560 --> 00:13:59.720 I can save him! 00:14:08.920 --> 00:14:11.440 He delivers a coup de grace, 00:14:11.520 --> 00:14:12.720 A hammer blow to the head 00:14:12.800 --> 00:14:14.480 Of the defeated gladiator. 00:14:14.520 --> 00:14:16.600 We know this because it's depicted in art, 00:14:16.720 --> 00:14:18.320 Because roman writers talk about it, 00:14:18.400 --> 00:14:20.560 And because we have found the skulls of gladiators 00:14:20.600 --> 00:14:22.640 With this distinctive pattern of fracturing 00:14:22.760 --> 00:14:24.640 That could only have come from this hammer. 00:14:28.960 --> 00:14:33.120 Marcus aurelius was someone who prized human life, 00:14:33.360 --> 00:14:35.760 Understood suffering, 00:14:35.840 --> 00:14:40.640 Didn't take pleasure in slaughter for its own sake. 00:14:40.720 --> 00:14:43.120 I've had enough. 00:14:43.240 --> 00:14:45.600 He doesn't really like the colosseum or the games. 00:14:45.840 --> 00:14:49.520 He sees them as being violent and vulgar. 00:14:49.640 --> 00:14:51.280 This is a problem for galen. 00:14:51.400 --> 00:14:53.840 If the emperor does not like gladiatorial games, 00:14:53.880 --> 00:14:55.760 Well, that's a bar to galen being able to make 00:14:55.840 --> 00:14:57.600 His name any further. 00:14:57.840 --> 00:14:59.920 If galen wants to make a name for himself, 00:15:00.000 --> 00:15:02.480 Then he's gonna have to look beyond the colosseum for work. 00:15:04.200 --> 00:15:06.320 Narrator: By the time galen arrives in rome, 00:15:06.400 --> 00:15:08.400 He's more than just a great surgeon. 00:15:12.520 --> 00:15:14.240 Galen, in addition to everything else, 00:15:14.480 --> 00:15:18.320 Was an expert pharmacologist and interested 00:15:18.400 --> 00:15:21.680 In hunting out the most efficacious ingredients 00:15:21.760 --> 00:15:23.440 Anywhere in the mediterranean area. 00:15:26.160 --> 00:15:28.640 One of the things that galen was most proud of 00:15:28.760 --> 00:15:31.080 Was a medicine that he created called 00:15:31.120 --> 00:15:34.800 Theriac or theriaca from the greek word therian, 00:15:34.920 --> 00:15:36.640 Meaning wild beast. 00:15:36.720 --> 00:15:39.040 And this is because it contained 00:15:39.280 --> 00:15:43.040 64 ingredients, some of which contained 00:15:43.120 --> 00:15:45.520 Parts of wild animals. 00:15:45.640 --> 00:15:49.600 And one magic ingredient, opium. 00:15:49.840 --> 00:15:52.560 Theriac was seen in the ancient world 00:15:52.640 --> 00:15:54.120 As a wonder drug. 00:15:54.160 --> 00:15:58.320 It would cure everything from a sprained ankle 00:15:58.440 --> 00:16:03.440 To a heart attack to hair loss. 00:16:03.520 --> 00:16:07.120 It was also most importantly 00:16:07.200 --> 00:16:10.400 An antidote to poison. 00:16:10.640 --> 00:16:11.760 - You're the emperor. - Mm-hmm. 00:16:11.880 --> 00:16:13.440 What do you fear most? 00:16:15.360 --> 00:16:16.720 Barbarians. 00:16:16.800 --> 00:16:17.920 Poison. 00:16:18.160 --> 00:16:19.520 You see, every emperor has enemies. 00:16:19.760 --> 00:16:21.320 Now, the emperor might not care to see me 00:16:21.360 --> 00:16:23.560 Save some gladiators, 00:16:23.600 --> 00:16:25.280 But he must want to save himself. 00:16:25.360 --> 00:16:27.240 I'm making the antidote. 00:16:28.480 --> 00:16:30.880 Poison and the fear of poison 00:16:31.120 --> 00:16:34.320 Is always on every emperor's mind. 00:16:34.400 --> 00:16:36.960 I mean, this was the quickest and easiest 00:16:37.200 --> 00:16:40.400 Way to kill someone. 00:16:40.480 --> 00:16:44.400 Claudius, nero's predecessor, was allegedly killed 00:16:44.520 --> 00:16:47.200 With poison mushrooms, so you can understand 00:16:47.440 --> 00:16:50.080 How marcus aurelius was always afraid 00:16:50.320 --> 00:16:53.840 Of history repeating itself. 00:16:53.920 --> 00:16:56.320 Narrator: Galen believes his knowledge of poison antidotes 00:16:56.400 --> 00:16:58.320 Could make him indispensable. 00:16:58.400 --> 00:17:00.320 And he knows someone on the inside 00:17:00.400 --> 00:17:03.120 Who can make an introduction to the emperor. 00:17:10.640 --> 00:17:13.760 When galen arrives in rome, one of the best contacts 00:17:14.000 --> 00:17:17.120 He's got already in the city is his old philosophy teacher, 00:17:17.360 --> 00:17:19.360 Eudemus, who is a personal friend 00:17:19.600 --> 00:17:21.480 Of the emperor marcus aurelius. 00:17:24.400 --> 00:17:26.800 Eudemus was really galen's ticket 00:17:26.920 --> 00:17:29.600 To upper class roman society and the cultural elite. 00:17:34.920 --> 00:17:36.560 Eudemus. 00:17:36.640 --> 00:17:38.000 It is good to see you. 00:17:38.080 --> 00:17:39.360 Oh, mighty caesar. 00:17:39.600 --> 00:17:41.360 I want to introduce you to one of 00:17:41.440 --> 00:17:43.400 The brightest students I ever taught. 00:17:43.440 --> 00:17:46.720 I'm honored to meet you and wish to offer my services. 00:17:46.800 --> 00:17:49.040 I didn't realize I was in need of them. 00:17:50.760 --> 00:17:52.400 I've invented a theriac. 00:17:52.480 --> 00:17:54.400 It's the most effective preventative against poison 00:17:54.480 --> 00:17:56.160 And illness ever known. 00:17:56.400 --> 00:17:58.000 Galen, is it? 00:17:59.880 --> 00:18:03.600 I'll let you know if I'm ever in need of your services. 00:18:03.720 --> 00:18:07.760 He wanted to practice medicine in that elite circle. 00:18:07.840 --> 00:18:10.640 He wanted to treat rome's most powerful people. 00:18:10.720 --> 00:18:13.200 But in fact, marcus aurelius doesn't try 00:18:13.280 --> 00:18:16.880 To contact galen at this point. 00:18:17.000 --> 00:18:19.360 Narrator: Galen's quest to join rome's elite 00:18:19.440 --> 00:18:22.800 Seems over for now. 00:18:28.640 --> 00:18:30.320 Narrator: Galen's attempts to advance his status 00:18:30.440 --> 00:18:32.720 In rome appear stalled. 00:18:32.800 --> 00:18:35.520 Then, a year after his arrival in the city, 00:18:35.600 --> 00:18:39.120 His friend eudemus contracts a mysterious illness. 00:18:42.920 --> 00:18:45.040 Eudemus was very well-connected 00:18:45.120 --> 00:18:46.640 With the roman aristocracy, 00:18:46.760 --> 00:18:49.200 So galen knew that if he could cure eudemus, 00:18:49.320 --> 00:18:52.640 Then these very powerful people would think 00:18:52.880 --> 00:18:54.800 He was a great doctor, and his reputation 00:18:54.880 --> 00:18:58.000 Might come to the ear of the emperor. 00:18:58.120 --> 00:18:59.360 Old friend. 00:18:59.600 --> 00:19:01.240 Old friend. Let me see. 00:19:01.320 --> 00:19:03.280 On the other hand, there was a lot of other doctors 00:19:03.600 --> 00:19:04.560 Who had their own opinions 00:19:04.600 --> 00:19:06.440 About the course of eudemus' illness, 00:19:06.480 --> 00:19:08.400 And galen had to compete against them 00:19:08.480 --> 00:19:10.160 In order to land this patient. 00:19:10.280 --> 00:19:12.800 I'll have to take a sample of your urine, I'm afraid. 00:19:13.960 --> 00:19:17.920 Whatever it is they're offering you, please don't take it. 00:19:20.200 --> 00:19:21.960 Galen had a simpler approach. 00:19:22.080 --> 00:19:25.320 Taking the pulse, asking the patient questions, 00:19:25.440 --> 00:19:27.800 Observing very carefully the course of disease, 00:19:28.040 --> 00:19:29.440 Comparing this against data 00:19:29.480 --> 00:19:31.720 That he had observed elsewhere. 00:19:31.840 --> 00:19:35.160 Galen is unique in that he really has science behind him, 00:19:35.240 --> 00:19:37.160 Or what we would consider science. 00:19:37.280 --> 00:19:38.840 And he manages to work out that eudemus 00:19:38.920 --> 00:19:40.600 Is suffering from quartan fever, 00:19:40.680 --> 00:19:42.360 Which is a type of malaria. 00:19:42.440 --> 00:19:43.520 There are a lot of difficulties 00:19:43.560 --> 00:19:44.600 About living in urban rome, 00:19:44.720 --> 00:19:46.280 And one of them is that rome, 00:19:46.360 --> 00:19:48.280 Throughout antiquity, remains malarial. 00:19:48.360 --> 00:19:51.400 There are always large breeding grounds 00:19:51.480 --> 00:19:55.000 In the riverbanks of the tiber for insects. 00:19:55.240 --> 00:19:57.960 And those insects carried malaria. 00:19:58.080 --> 00:20:00.760 We both know... 00:20:00.840 --> 00:20:02.520 I may not make it. 00:20:02.600 --> 00:20:06.200 Eudemus, you will live. 00:20:06.280 --> 00:20:07.640 Galen really knew there was no cure 00:20:07.880 --> 00:20:10.040 For what eudemus was facing. 00:20:10.120 --> 00:20:13.320 However, though, he was able, because of prognosis, 00:20:13.440 --> 00:20:17.000 By carefully observing the course of eudemus's fevers, 00:20:17.080 --> 00:20:20.840 That eudemus was gonna pull out of this. 00:20:20.960 --> 00:20:24.200 Like apollo, he was able to prophesy 00:20:24.320 --> 00:20:26.280 What was going to happen in the course of an illness. 00:20:28.840 --> 00:20:32.360 Eudemus' powerful friends now thought of galen 00:20:32.440 --> 00:20:35.880 As this phenomenally effective doctor 00:20:36.000 --> 00:20:39.560 And really prognostication. 00:20:39.640 --> 00:20:42.920 This was a very big step in his career in rome. 00:20:45.000 --> 00:20:47.400 Narrator: To harness his growing reputation, 00:20:47.520 --> 00:20:51.000 Galen treats anyone in need. 00:20:51.080 --> 00:20:53.960 Rather than holding out a fancy medical degree, 00:20:54.080 --> 00:20:56.920 The way you search your preeminence 00:20:57.000 --> 00:20:58.600 Is on the public stage. 00:21:01.760 --> 00:21:03.920 You do not become an ancient doctor 00:21:03.960 --> 00:21:06.840 Unless you want to become a public orator as well 00:21:07.040 --> 00:21:08.680 Because you have to be constantly 00:21:08.760 --> 00:21:12.680 Explaining your methods and defending your methods. 00:21:12.800 --> 00:21:15.080 Galen is doing public demonstrations. 00:21:15.160 --> 00:21:17.640 He is arguing against his rivals. 00:21:17.720 --> 00:21:19.080 He's writing. He's studying. 00:21:19.160 --> 00:21:21.400 But most important, he's treating folks 00:21:21.640 --> 00:21:23.480 From every social stratum, 00:21:23.560 --> 00:21:26.600 From rome senatorial class 00:21:26.720 --> 00:21:28.520 Down to the humblest of slaves. 00:21:32.360 --> 00:21:35.080 And galen's reputation is growing as a result. 00:21:36.360 --> 00:21:39.000 Narrator: Then from the far reaches of the empire 00:21:39.240 --> 00:21:41.000 Comes a shocking development. 00:21:41.080 --> 00:21:43.880 News comes from the northern frontier, 00:21:44.000 --> 00:21:46.200 The danube, that there's been an invasion. 00:21:47.880 --> 00:21:50.120 Barbarian tribes launched their attack 00:21:50.240 --> 00:21:52.440 From germania, and for once, 00:21:52.520 --> 00:21:54.920 Rome's army can't push them back. 00:21:56.760 --> 00:21:58.520 The northern frontier was crumbling. 00:21:58.600 --> 00:22:01.240 There were very serious incursions threatening 00:22:01.320 --> 00:22:03.480 Roman interests, especially by a very dangerous tribe 00:22:03.720 --> 00:22:05.880 Called the marcomanni. 00:22:05.960 --> 00:22:09.880 What starts as what might seem a fairly small invasion 00:22:10.120 --> 00:22:12.840 Turns into what are known as the marcomannic wars, 00:22:12.920 --> 00:22:15.800 And they occupy marcus for the rest of his reign. 00:22:18.240 --> 00:22:21.080 The marcomannic wars on the northern frontier 00:22:21.320 --> 00:22:24.280 May be seen as the first of the barbarian invasions 00:22:24.360 --> 00:22:26.440 From the north that will chip away 00:22:26.560 --> 00:22:29.480 At the very foundations of the roman empire. 00:22:29.600 --> 00:22:31.880 Narrator: In response, rome's two emperors 00:22:31.960 --> 00:22:34.200 Travel 350 miles north 00:22:34.280 --> 00:22:35.960 To reach their military headquarters 00:22:36.200 --> 00:22:38.680 At aquileia on the border of Italy 00:22:38.760 --> 00:22:41.640 And modern day slovenia. 00:22:41.760 --> 00:22:44.760 Marcus aurelius had a very strong sense of duty, 00:22:44.840 --> 00:22:47.400 And also, he was a political realist. 00:22:47.520 --> 00:22:49.400 And as much as he would have preferred 00:22:49.640 --> 00:22:52.040 To leave the fighting to his subordinates 00:22:52.160 --> 00:22:54.200 Or even to his co-emperor, verus, 00:22:54.280 --> 00:22:57.880 He realized that this required his personal intervention. 00:23:00.000 --> 00:23:01.560 This was a threat that was serious enough 00:23:01.800 --> 00:23:04.200 That both marcus aurelius and lucius verus 00:23:04.280 --> 00:23:06.280 Went to the frontier to deal with. 00:23:08.200 --> 00:23:10.000 Narrator: When the emperors reach the camp, 00:23:10.080 --> 00:23:13.640 They confront a new kind of enemy. 00:23:13.760 --> 00:23:15.640 A deadly and mysterious disease 00:23:15.880 --> 00:23:19.720 Is running rampant through the cramped legions. 00:23:19.800 --> 00:23:22.120 The men in aquileia have experienced 00:23:22.200 --> 00:23:25.000 Nothing like this before. 00:23:26.600 --> 00:23:28.760 By all accounts, the plague 00:23:29.000 --> 00:23:30.920 Was a horrible, horrible disease. 00:23:31.000 --> 00:23:33.560 I mean, in addition to the expected diarrhea 00:23:33.800 --> 00:23:36.080 And vomiting and fevers, what happened to the skin 00:23:36.160 --> 00:23:37.200 Was really disconcerting. 00:23:37.280 --> 00:23:39.760 Scabs would form and then fall off, 00:23:39.880 --> 00:23:42.680 Leaving horrible lesions. 00:23:42.760 --> 00:23:45.080 It was devastating in its effects. 00:23:45.320 --> 00:23:48.000 People didn't seem to have any previous immunity, 00:23:48.080 --> 00:23:50.520 And it killed a large percentage of the people 00:23:50.600 --> 00:23:52.680 That it infected. 00:23:52.800 --> 00:23:57.160 Narrator: No one is spared, including emperors. 00:23:57.280 --> 00:23:59.240 Not you too. 00:23:59.320 --> 00:24:00.360 It's nothing. 00:24:03.840 --> 00:24:06.120 There's a doctor I met once. 00:24:06.200 --> 00:24:09.240 He cured eudemus when no one else could. 00:24:09.320 --> 00:24:12.680 He claims to have an antidote to any poison. 00:24:12.800 --> 00:24:16.680 You want to bring him here, to this? 00:24:16.760 --> 00:24:21.560 I cannot simply watch you die. 00:24:21.640 --> 00:24:24.120 The roman empire has never been free of diseases. 00:24:24.360 --> 00:24:27.160 But epidemics like the one that marcus aurelius 00:24:27.240 --> 00:24:30.760 Is experiencing, that's something new. 00:24:30.880 --> 00:24:33.560 It rapidly became apparent to the high command 00:24:33.800 --> 00:24:36.120 And to the emperor himself that they were wrestling 00:24:36.360 --> 00:24:39.960 With a health crisis of the highest order. 00:24:40.040 --> 00:24:45.560 Marcus aurelius reacted by summoning galen from rome. 00:24:53.240 --> 00:24:55.320 Imagine that kind of emotion 00:24:55.400 --> 00:24:57.840 That would have been in galen at that time. 00:25:00.040 --> 00:25:03.800 Here's my chance to actually serve the emperor directly. 00:25:03.880 --> 00:25:05.320 And on the other hand, it's like, 00:25:05.440 --> 00:25:07.560 This is a really bad situation I'm going into. 00:25:09.320 --> 00:25:11.720 Narrator: Galen sets out to serve the emperor, 00:25:11.840 --> 00:25:14.600 Not knowing if he'll ever return. 00:25:29.000 --> 00:25:30.840 Narrator: Two years into the war 00:25:30.920 --> 00:25:33.080 With the marcomanni tribe, galen arrives 00:25:33.160 --> 00:25:35.160 At rome's military headquarters 00:25:35.240 --> 00:25:38.280 To find an army in crisis. 00:25:41.880 --> 00:25:43.480 The situation that galen found 00:25:43.720 --> 00:25:45.320 When he reached aquileia 00:25:45.400 --> 00:25:48.200 Was more severe than anything he could have imagined. 00:25:54.200 --> 00:25:56.600 Galen gives us some pretty detailed description 00:25:56.680 --> 00:25:58.920 Of symptoms, and based on those symptoms, 00:25:59.000 --> 00:26:01.880 We think it was likely smallpox. 00:26:02.120 --> 00:26:04.920 It might have been the first appearance 00:26:05.160 --> 00:26:08.840 Of smallpox in the mediterranean world. 00:26:08.920 --> 00:26:10.760 There's some argument that he's seeing 00:26:10.800 --> 00:26:12.160 A lot of hemorrhagic smallpox, 00:26:12.240 --> 00:26:14.440 Which is a really lethal form of smallpox, 00:26:14.520 --> 00:26:16.480 Where you get a lot of bleeding under the skin. 00:26:20.680 --> 00:26:23.720 This crisis comes in many ways for the empire, 00:26:23.800 --> 00:26:25.400 But in a very different and essential way 00:26:25.480 --> 00:26:29.480 For galen, the defining challenge of his life. 00:26:29.600 --> 00:26:34.360 More than perhaps at any point in human memory, 00:26:34.440 --> 00:26:38.200 Disease had become an existential threat 00:26:38.440 --> 00:26:40.440 To rome itself. 00:26:43.680 --> 00:26:45.720 Narrator: As the plague continues 00:26:45.800 --> 00:26:47.320 To wipe out their troops, 00:26:47.560 --> 00:26:49.480 The two emperors return to rome 00:26:49.560 --> 00:26:52.840 To replenish their diminished legions. 00:26:52.920 --> 00:26:55.800 They leave the army under galen's care. 00:26:58.040 --> 00:26:59.640 The winter that he spent at aquileia 00:26:59.880 --> 00:27:02.040 Was very difficult for him. 00:27:02.280 --> 00:27:04.840 It's rare for him to express despair 00:27:04.920 --> 00:27:07.520 Or feeling of being overwhelmed, 00:27:07.600 --> 00:27:09.960 But that is exactly what he does. 00:27:10.040 --> 00:27:12.200 He treated hundreds of plague victims, 00:27:12.280 --> 00:27:14.920 And he says that the whole population 00:27:15.040 --> 00:27:18.600 Struggled to survive that winter of plague in 168. 00:27:26.600 --> 00:27:27.960 Narrator: On the journey to rome, 00:27:28.040 --> 00:27:30.280 Lucius verus dies, 00:27:30.400 --> 00:27:33.080 Leaving marcus aurelius solely in charge 00:27:33.160 --> 00:27:36.920 Of an empire in peril. 00:27:37.000 --> 00:27:38.680 Verus didn't make it very far, 00:27:38.760 --> 00:27:41.800 Only 50 miles from aquileia. 00:27:41.880 --> 00:27:44.600 For marcus aurelius, he is left on his own 00:27:44.680 --> 00:27:47.000 To rule an empire that's stricken by plague, 00:27:47.080 --> 00:27:48.600 Has enemies at the borders, 00:27:48.680 --> 00:27:51.400 An army that's been devastated by this disease. 00:27:51.520 --> 00:27:54.120 He knows that the responsibility is his 00:27:54.200 --> 00:27:56.680 To rule the roman empire by himself. 00:28:05.560 --> 00:28:07.320 Narrator: After a year on the front line, 00:28:07.400 --> 00:28:10.920 Galen is summoned back to rome by marcus aurelius. 00:28:16.040 --> 00:28:18.840 It doesn't take very long for the plague 00:28:18.920 --> 00:28:21.720 To ravage all of Italy and to spread 00:28:21.960 --> 00:28:25.080 From the legions to the civilian population itself. 00:28:28.040 --> 00:28:29.640 Under these circumstances, rome would have been 00:28:29.760 --> 00:28:31.720 A horrible place to be. 00:28:31.800 --> 00:28:33.160 There was nowhere in the world 00:28:33.280 --> 00:28:35.040 That was more conducive to the spread 00:28:35.160 --> 00:28:37.120 Of a highly transmissible and lethal disease 00:28:37.160 --> 00:28:38.440 Than the city of rome. 00:28:43.560 --> 00:28:45.080 Galen returns to rome, 00:28:45.320 --> 00:28:47.560 And he finds a transformed city. 00:28:47.640 --> 00:28:51.320 And in fact, galen's family itself is not spared. 00:28:53.440 --> 00:28:58.120 Almost everyone in his own household dies. 00:28:58.200 --> 00:29:01.160 One can really empathize with galen at this point. 00:29:01.280 --> 00:29:03.560 This is a physician who's devoted his entire life 00:29:03.640 --> 00:29:06.600 To helping folks from every imaginable walk of life. 00:29:06.680 --> 00:29:08.840 But it's the scale of this plague, 00:29:08.920 --> 00:29:11.320 Of this disease, that's just overwhelming. 00:29:11.560 --> 00:29:14.600 And of course, no one knew for how long it would go on. 00:29:20.480 --> 00:29:22.920 His observations of an understanding 00:29:23.000 --> 00:29:25.960 Of what was happening were ahead of many other doctors. 00:29:26.040 --> 00:29:29.000 And of course, that brings him close to marcus aurelius, 00:29:29.040 --> 00:29:31.040 Who, first of all, doesn't want to become 00:29:31.080 --> 00:29:32.760 A victim of the plague himself, 00:29:32.840 --> 00:29:36.040 But is also desperate to understand how to stop it. 00:29:42.920 --> 00:29:44.360 The doctor galen 00:29:44.440 --> 00:29:46.040 And the emperor marcus aurelius 00:29:46.120 --> 00:29:49.560 Were more than nearly exact contemporaries. 00:29:49.640 --> 00:29:52.520 They also had deep affinities. 00:29:52.640 --> 00:29:55.160 They both seem to have had an impulse 00:29:55.240 --> 00:29:59.560 Towards kind of something like seriousness of purpose. 00:29:59.640 --> 00:30:01.240 Narrator: Now galen's mission is to keep 00:30:01.480 --> 00:30:03.960 Emperor marcus aurelius alive. 00:30:04.200 --> 00:30:07.160 He probably reserves his special treatment, theriac, 00:30:07.400 --> 00:30:10.440 For the emperor alone. 00:30:10.520 --> 00:30:13.480 I added cinnamon this time. 00:30:24.040 --> 00:30:27.160 It didn't help. 00:30:27.240 --> 00:30:31.720 Now I need to record exactly how you're feeling. 00:30:31.800 --> 00:30:33.240 Science. 00:30:33.320 --> 00:30:35.720 Of course. 00:30:35.840 --> 00:30:38.440 To what end? 00:30:38.520 --> 00:30:41.760 Who will be left to read about your science? 00:30:43.040 --> 00:30:45.960 Perhaps I will be saved. 00:30:46.040 --> 00:30:47.960 But rome? 00:30:51.400 --> 00:30:53.640 While on one hand, the reign of marcus aurelius 00:30:53.760 --> 00:30:56.520 Marks something of a high point in the roman empire, 00:30:56.640 --> 00:30:59.480 It also marks the point when the seeds were planted 00:30:59.720 --> 00:31:02.040 That were going to define the next couple of centuries 00:31:02.280 --> 00:31:04.360 Of rome's existence. 00:31:04.480 --> 00:31:06.760 Narrator: Though neither the emperor nor his physician 00:31:06.840 --> 00:31:08.120 Know it, the plague, 00:31:08.360 --> 00:31:10.440 Coupled with the barbarian invasion, 00:31:10.520 --> 00:31:13.720 Marks a turning point for rome. 00:31:20.320 --> 00:31:21.960 Narrator: Despite the ongoing crisis 00:31:22.040 --> 00:31:23.800 And amidst the devastating plague, 00:31:24.040 --> 00:31:26.680 Marcus aurelius holds games in the colosseum 00:31:26.920 --> 00:31:29.080 To honor his brother lucius. 00:31:29.320 --> 00:31:32.360 He's joined by his son and heir, commodus. 00:31:35.200 --> 00:31:37.840 The colosseum actually remained open 00:31:37.920 --> 00:31:39.000 While all of this was going on. 00:31:39.080 --> 00:31:40.520 After all, the romans didn't understand 00:31:40.600 --> 00:31:42.800 Person-to-person transmission of disease, 00:31:42.880 --> 00:31:44.000 So there was no thought that this 00:31:44.120 --> 00:31:47.080 Might be a disease vector. 00:31:47.160 --> 00:31:49.160 There is death in the streets. 00:31:49.240 --> 00:31:51.160 The economy is failing. 00:31:51.240 --> 00:31:53.880 So this is the point where marcus realizes 00:31:53.960 --> 00:31:55.400 The importance of the colosseum 00:31:55.520 --> 00:31:58.680 And uses it to great effect. 00:31:58.920 --> 00:32:02.520 You do what you do to appreciate the gods. 00:32:02.760 --> 00:32:03.880 You have your sacrifices. 00:32:04.000 --> 00:32:05.600 You have your religious events. 00:32:05.720 --> 00:32:07.000 You have your games. 00:32:07.080 --> 00:32:11.160 It's all part of a normal life in the roman city. 00:32:11.400 --> 00:32:13.640 And in a time of crisis, 00:32:13.760 --> 00:32:16.360 You've got to keep people unified. 00:32:20.200 --> 00:32:23.760 Marcus aurelius was a very popular emperor, 00:32:23.880 --> 00:32:29.880 But he made one very unpopular move. 00:32:39.840 --> 00:32:45.760 And that is, he made the contestants fight 00:32:45.840 --> 00:32:47.680 With wooden swords. 00:32:51.240 --> 00:32:53.200 The romans were used to 400 years 00:32:53.280 --> 00:32:55.560 Of gladiatorial fighting with live steel. 00:32:55.600 --> 00:32:58.560 And the notion that gladiators would now fight 00:32:58.800 --> 00:33:01.840 With wood swords went down like a lead balloon. 00:33:10.720 --> 00:33:13.680 Narrator: Marcus aurelius intends something shocking, 00:33:13.800 --> 00:33:18.480 Enlisting gladiators to replenish his army. 00:33:18.560 --> 00:33:20.480 Thanks to galen, he's learned they are 00:33:20.720 --> 00:33:24.480 One of the few groups in rome untouched by the plague. 00:33:29.160 --> 00:33:30.400 They're healthy. 00:33:30.440 --> 00:33:32.440 I want to know everything about them. 00:33:32.520 --> 00:33:34.440 Their training, their food, their sleep, 00:33:34.480 --> 00:33:36.880 Their bowel movements. 00:33:36.960 --> 00:33:39.280 The gladiators live in a sheltered community. 00:33:39.360 --> 00:33:41.840 They don't have any connection to the outside world. 00:33:41.960 --> 00:33:43.360 They're exceptionally healthy. 00:33:43.440 --> 00:33:44.960 They're getting three square meals a day. 00:33:45.040 --> 00:33:46.960 They've got great medical care. 00:33:47.040 --> 00:33:48.560 So they're probably the fittest people 00:33:48.640 --> 00:33:50.640 In rome at that moment. 00:33:50.720 --> 00:33:52.000 We have to remember, of course, 00:33:52.080 --> 00:33:53.760 That what the gladiators were trained to do 00:33:53.840 --> 00:33:55.200 Was fight. 00:33:55.280 --> 00:33:58.720 That is what marcus aurelius needed. 00:33:58.960 --> 00:34:01.280 Narrator: That marcus aurelius makes this decision 00:34:01.360 --> 00:34:04.560 Suggests unprecedented strain. 00:34:04.680 --> 00:34:06.960 How could these degenerates and criminals 00:34:07.040 --> 00:34:08.800 Defend the honor of rome? 00:34:09.040 --> 00:34:10.880 Could they be trusted on the battlefield? 00:34:13.320 --> 00:34:16.960 The gladiators were slaves, often drawn from, 00:34:17.200 --> 00:34:21.120 In the roman view, the lowest born peoples of the empire 00:34:21.360 --> 00:34:25.920 And engaged in a sordid occupation. 00:34:26.000 --> 00:34:30.160 To have them vaulted into a kind of prestige role 00:34:30.280 --> 00:34:32.720 Of soldiers on behalf of the empire itself 00:34:32.840 --> 00:34:36.880 Was a startling transformation. 00:34:37.000 --> 00:34:39.040 Line up for the emperor. 00:34:46.000 --> 00:34:48.400 Take up these arms. 00:34:48.520 --> 00:34:52.400 You are now roman soldiers. 00:35:01.600 --> 00:35:05.760 When I look at you, I don't see prisoners. 00:35:05.840 --> 00:35:09.200 I don't see criminals or slaves. 00:35:09.320 --> 00:35:12.480 I don't even see gladiators. 00:35:12.560 --> 00:35:15.840 I see legionaries, 00:35:15.920 --> 00:35:20.960 Dedicated to protecting this great empire. 00:35:21.200 --> 00:35:24.000 Help me to protect the citizens of rome, 00:35:24.080 --> 00:35:26.800 And you will win your freedom. 00:35:28.720 --> 00:35:30.080 caesar! Caesar! Caesar! 00:35:30.160 --> 00:35:33.040 That is my solemn promise. 00:35:35.120 --> 00:35:37.280 In some sense, it speaks to the desperation 00:35:37.520 --> 00:35:40.400 That marcus aurelius is facing in that moment 00:35:40.480 --> 00:35:42.640 And the tremendous risk he's willing to take 00:35:42.720 --> 00:35:45.920 In order to make sure that the empire will endure. 00:35:55.520 --> 00:35:57.840 Narrator: In the fall of 169 a.D., 00:35:57.960 --> 00:36:00.240 Marcus aurelius assembles his legions 00:36:00.320 --> 00:36:03.360 From across the empire. 00:36:03.440 --> 00:36:06.480 Galen expects to be called back to the battlefield. 00:36:10.320 --> 00:36:12.480 Ready the horses. 00:36:15.600 --> 00:36:17.040 And as for you, galen-- 00:36:17.160 --> 00:36:18.960 Marcus, I'm sorry. 00:36:19.040 --> 00:36:20.800 I can't go. 00:36:21.040 --> 00:36:22.960 Not again. 00:36:23.040 --> 00:36:24.320 I'm a scientist. 00:36:24.560 --> 00:36:25.680 I'm not a warrior. 00:36:25.800 --> 00:36:27.280 Is that so? 00:36:27.400 --> 00:36:30.640 Well, the empire needs both. 00:36:33.320 --> 00:36:34.240 Commodus. 00:36:37.320 --> 00:36:42.160 I was going to ask you to look after my son in my absence. 00:36:42.280 --> 00:36:44.560 Caesar. 00:36:46.640 --> 00:36:49.120 Galen is still traumatized 00:36:49.200 --> 00:36:52.080 By the last time he was on the front lines. 00:36:52.160 --> 00:36:56.800 And when the emperor asks him why he cannot go, 00:36:56.880 --> 00:37:01.440 He said, "well, I had a vision from a god who said, 00:37:01.680 --> 00:37:04.640 'do not go. Do not go.'" 00:37:04.720 --> 00:37:06.960 And one thing about the romans, 00:37:07.040 --> 00:37:10.000 They believed in omens. 00:37:10.120 --> 00:37:11.680 Depending on what you believe, 00:37:11.800 --> 00:37:13.240 You can either think that galen was clearly 00:37:13.280 --> 00:37:15.920 Blessed by the gods, or you might think 00:37:15.960 --> 00:37:17.760 That it just happened to conveniently be 00:37:17.840 --> 00:37:20.320 That the gods spoke to him at that particular moment 00:37:20.560 --> 00:37:22.640 And saved him from going to a miserable place 00:37:22.760 --> 00:37:24.560 To do a miserable job. 00:37:26.720 --> 00:37:28.160 Narrator: Now as personal surgeon 00:37:28.240 --> 00:37:30.000 To rome's heir apparent, 00:37:30.080 --> 00:37:33.040 Galen's task is to ensure the eight-year-old 00:37:33.120 --> 00:37:37.120 Lucius commodus does not succumb to the deadly plague. 00:37:42.320 --> 00:37:44.480 At the same time, marcus aurelius 00:37:44.520 --> 00:37:47.680 Heads north to aquileia. 00:37:47.720 --> 00:37:50.520 With gladiator battalions at their heart, 00:37:50.600 --> 00:37:52.800 His legions confront the barbarian armies. 00:37:55.560 --> 00:37:57.520 After months of fierce fighting, 00:37:57.600 --> 00:38:00.000 They turn back this invasion. 00:38:04.880 --> 00:38:07.520 The marcomannic wars along the danube frontiers 00:38:07.600 --> 00:38:11.520 With the germanic peoples are a wake up call for rome, 00:38:11.600 --> 00:38:15.120 And a wake up call into, we might say, a nightmare. 00:38:15.200 --> 00:38:17.800 Narrator: A decisive victory remains out of reach, 00:38:17.840 --> 00:38:19.520 And marcus spends most of the rest 00:38:19.760 --> 00:38:22.320 Of his reign on a battlefield. 00:38:22.440 --> 00:38:26.320 This marks a turning point in roman imperial history. 00:38:26.440 --> 00:38:28.320 What marcus aurelius was seeing 00:38:28.400 --> 00:38:31.040 Was really the future of the roman empire. 00:38:31.280 --> 00:38:33.840 There's going to be waves of incursions from goths 00:38:33.920 --> 00:38:36.400 And vandals and many northern tribes, 00:38:36.480 --> 00:38:39.280 All out to vanquish Italy. 00:38:44.800 --> 00:38:47.040 Narrator: 350 miles away in rome, 00:38:47.280 --> 00:38:48.720 Galen devotes himself 00:38:48.840 --> 00:38:51.360 To the pursuits of medical science. 00:38:51.600 --> 00:38:54.160 Galen must have been very relieved 00:38:54.240 --> 00:38:56.880 Not to be on the front lines. 00:38:57.000 --> 00:38:58.880 And now he can turn his attention 00:38:58.960 --> 00:39:00.960 To his favorite activities: 00:39:01.200 --> 00:39:05.920 Reading, writing, composing scientific works, 00:39:06.160 --> 00:39:09.680 Journals, and the like. 00:39:09.800 --> 00:39:13.280 Galen is probably the single most influential figure 00:39:13.360 --> 00:39:15.680 In the history of medicine. 00:39:15.760 --> 00:39:20.240 He left us a massive collection of medical texts. 00:39:20.360 --> 00:39:26.160 In fact, he's probably the most prolific author in antiquity. 00:39:26.280 --> 00:39:30.640 His greek works comprise about one-eighth 00:39:30.760 --> 00:39:37.280 Of all ancient greek manuscripts that we have. 00:39:37.520 --> 00:39:41.360 The knowledge that galen's medical texts contain 00:39:41.480 --> 00:39:47.360 Defined islamic and european medicine for 15 centuries. 00:39:52.640 --> 00:39:54.320 Narrator: Despite the best medical care 00:39:54.400 --> 00:39:57.120 The empire can offer, marcus aurelius will die 00:39:57.200 --> 00:40:01.440 At his military headquarters on March 17, 180 a.D., 00:40:01.680 --> 00:40:04.400 Most likely from smallpox. 00:40:07.440 --> 00:40:11.280 Under galen's care, his heir survives. 00:40:11.360 --> 00:40:12.880 Galen's babysitting duties 00:40:12.960 --> 00:40:15.680 Turn out to have unintended consequences. 00:40:15.760 --> 00:40:18.160 Thanks to him, the heir to the throne 00:40:18.280 --> 00:40:21.280 Grows up to be a healthy young man. 00:40:21.360 --> 00:40:24.560 The irony is that commodus turns out to be something 00:40:24.680 --> 00:40:27.040 That rome will come to regret. 00:40:31.400 --> 00:40:34.240 In fact, commodus turns out to be 00:40:34.320 --> 00:40:36.560 One of the most disastrous emperors 00:40:36.640 --> 00:40:37.920 In the history of rome. 00:40:40.560 --> 00:40:42.560 Ultimately, he'll grind it 00:40:42.640 --> 00:40:47.160 Into a long, slow, and painful decline.